Not just neurons: The diverse cellular landscape of learning and memory

Unraveling the cell biology of learning and memory has been a major goal in neuroscience, as memories influence our actions and shape our identities, and many debilitating memory disorders currently lack effective treatments. Early research concentrated on neuronal responses and mechanisms in simple invertebrates. Later studies expanded to more complex systems, including rodents, non-human primates, and humans, but they remained highly neuron centric. However, more recently, it has become clear that learning and memory require the cooperation of multiple cell types, which include, in addition to neurons, major glial cell subpopulations and vascular cells. In this perspective, we discuss the historical neuron-centric view and recent discoveries demonstrating the active roles of diverse cell types in learning and memory. We will end by highlighting some open questions, the answers to which might provide a more comprehensive understanding of this fundamental biology.