@inbook{a3f8db8b374b4041b15541622132fc63,
title = "The rise of higher education and science in China.",
abstract = "Purpose - This chapter provides a thorough historical overview of policies that have governed and guided scientific research in China since 1949 and illustrates changes in scientific publications that accompanied these policy reforms and programs. Design - We divide this historical period into four stages, each with distinct R&D policies: (1) 1949-1955, a period of socialist transformation; (2) 1956-1965, a period of struggle for higher education and research development in a rapidly changing political environment; (3) 1966-1976, the lost decade of the Cultural Revolution; and (4) 1976-present, a period when major national policies have significantly promoted scientific research in China. We use the SPHERE project's comprehensive historical dataset based on Thomson Reuters' Web of Science and data from a set of research universities in China to analyze changes in scientific publication rates concurrent with these policy reforms and programs. Findings - The analysis suggests a tight connection between national policy and scientific research productivity in higher education. The central government controlled scientific research through direct administration in early periods and has guided research activities through funding specific programs in recent decades. Due to their resource dependency on the central government, higher education institutions have been quite responsive to the common goals set by the central government. As a result, what is measured tends to be accomplished. Originality/value - The chapter provides an in-depth description about the rise of higher education and science in China and produces recommendations for future development.",
author = "Liang Zhang and Liang Sun and Wei Bao",
note = "Funding Information: Among various efforts and initiatives, the “211 Project” and “985 Project” have been most notable. The “211 Project,” launched in 1995, refers to the expectation that at the beginning of the 21st century, China would have 100 elite higher education institutions. The project goal was to build national elite universities by improving their capacity in teaching, research, and public service. The government selected universities according to their status and strength in academic disciplines. The project eventually included 116 universities. Among all higher education institutions, a subset of most comprehensive and prestigious institutions, a total of 116 institutions, received special funds from the “211 project.” Thirty-nine of these institutions further distinguished themselves as part of the “985 project.” Universities selected for the “211” project received special grants from both central and local governments. From 1995 to 2000, the “211 Project” provided almost CNY 10.9 billion (about USD 1.3 billion) to Chinese universities. As resources flowed into these institutions, they were able to consolidate their advantageous positions in China{\textquoteright}s higher education system. The value of equipment, the number of books, and the amount of research funds associated with these institutions respectively accounted for 54%, 31%, and 72% of resources held by all higher education institutions in the country. Moreover, the “211” institutions gained a distinct advantage in fostering new talent. These universities trained 84% of all doctoral students and 69% of all master{\textquoteright}s students nationwide (Dong et al., 2007). Funding Information: With support from the Chinese government, CAS launched “The Plan of Introducing Foreign Outstanding Talent” and “The Well-Known Overseas Scholars Program” in 2001 as part of the “100 Talents” program. By the end of 2005, 1,443 elite scientists had been recruited into the program and worked in CAS. By the end of 2009, over 1,200 scientists had been introduced from overseas, among which 29 became CAS academicians,3 53 assuming the positions of chair scientists in key national scientific research projects, and 371 playing a leading role in national high-tech development projects (Zhen, 2013). Following the success of the “100 Talents” program, the Ministry of Education launched the “Yangtze River Scholar Scheme” in 1998. Among the 1,107 Yangtze River Scheme scholars recruited between 1998 and 2006, 94% had education or work experiences abroad. Funding Information: In 1977, when the Cultural Revolution came to an end, CAS was permitted to resume its graduate education program. CAS established China{\textquoteright}s first graduate school in 1978 at the University of Science and Technology of China (an affiliated institution founded in 1958). CAS was also the pilot institution for university degree regulations in China. Among the first 18 graduates to obtain doctoral degrees in China, 12 were educated at CAS. In addition, CAS was the first institution to resume international academic exchanges when it sent visiting scholars abroad in 1978. Among the 20,000 students going abroad from 1978 to 1984, 85% studied in the fields of science and technology, among which one-fifth were from CAS. Moreover, CAS was the first institution to resume the evaluation system for academic ranks and scientific research grants and awards. In 1982, the Chinese government created an endowment to establish the Science Foundation of CAS, which provided research funds for basic research nationwide. Based on this foundation, the National Natural Science Foundation of China was founded in 1986 as an affiliate of the State Council of China, no longer within CAS structure. CAS also recruited the first postdoctoral scholar in China in 1984 and established more grant and award programs for young scientists, including The Research Foundation for Young Scientists and the CAS Young Scientists Award; since 1987, both have contributed significantly to training scholars for research teams (Li, 2011). Funding Information: However, the boundary between CAS and higher education institutions seems quite blurred, because CAS cooperates with universities in research nationwide and also has set up its own affiliate universities, including University of Science and Technology of China, and Shanghai University of Science and Technology. These two universities are considered higher education institutions in the analysis below, because they function as same as other higher education institutions in education and research rather than research-only institutes. They also receive funding from Ministry of Education and other governmental departments in addition to CAS, and their research team contains both CAS scholars and non-CAS employees. Funding Information: Fig. 5. Publications by Scholars from the Chinese Academy of Science and Other Higher Education Institutions. Source: SPHERE project database of SCIE publications (Thomson Reuters{\textquoteright} Web of Science). Funding Information: Fig. 6. Proportion of Publications by Scholars from the Chinese Academy of Science and Other Higher Education Institutions. Source: SPHERE project database of SCIE publications (Thomson Reuters{\textquoteright} Web of Science). Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2017 by Emerald Publishing Limited.",
year = "2017",
language = "English (US)",
volume = "33",
pages = "141--172",
editor = "Powell, {Justin J.W.} and David Baker and Frank Fernandez",
booktitle = "International Perspectives on Education and Society series",
publisher = "Emerald Books",
}