Unveil sleep spindles with concentration of frequency and time (ConceFT)

Objective. Sleep spindles contain crucial brain dynamics information. We introduce the novel non-linear time-frequency (TF) analysis tool ‘Concentration of Frequency and Time’ (ConceFT) to create an interpretable automated algorithm for sleep spindle annotation in EEG data and to measure spindle instantaneous frequencies (IFs). Approach. ConceFT effectively reduces stochastic EEG influence, enhancing spindle visibility in the TF representation. Our automated spindle detection algorithm, ConceFT-Spindle (ConceFT-S), is compared to A7 (non-deep learning) and SUMO (deep learning) using Dream and Montreal Archive of Sleep Studies (MASS) benchmark databases. We also quantify spindle IF dynamics. Main results. ConceFT-S achieves F1 scores of 0.765 in Dream and 0.791 in MASS, which surpass A7 and SUMO. We reveal that spindle IF is generally nonlinear. Significance. ConceFT offers an accurate, interpretable EEG-based sleep spindle detection algorithm and enables spindle IF quantification.